This paper examines primary controlling factors that affect methyl halide emissions from rice paddy ecosystems. Observations of four cultivars under multiple growth conditions during studies in commercial fields and the University of California, Irvine, greenhouse lead to the conclusion that daily emissions of methyl halides are primarily determined by the growth stage of the rice plant, with the exception that methyl chloride emissions show no clear seasonal pattern. Methyl chloride emissions appear to be more from the paddy water and/or soil as opposed to the plants; however, in soils with high chloride content, these emissions appear to peak during the reproductive phase. Strong secondary influences include air temperature, soil halide concentration, and soil pore water saturation. The cultivars studied had statistically separate seasonally integrated emissions. Irradiand light and aboveground biomass appear to have little effect on emissions. Emissions of methyl chloride, methyl bromide, and methyl iodide are estimated to be 3.5, 2.3, and 48 mg/m2/yr, or 5.3, 3.5, and 72 Gg/yr, from rice paddies globally. Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union.

Methyl halide gases are important sources of atmospheric inorganic halogen radicals. We measured methyl halide emissions from three rice fields over two full growing seasons. Rice paddy emissions of methyl chloride, methyl bromide and methyl iodide are insignificant until field flooding. Rice growth stage determines methyl bromide and methyl iodide emissions while methyl chloride emissions are comparable between planted and unplanted plots. Houston, Texas, and Maxwell, California, field integrated seasonal fluxes of methyl chloride, methyl bromide and methyl iodide are consistent (values range from 2.3 to 3.9, 0.8 to 1.1, and 28.1 to 62.0 mg m-2, respectively) despite differences in multiple field parameters. We also examined field emission variability using 12 chamber placements. Methyl bromide and methyl iodide emissions within homogenous rice paddies require at least three replicates to determine field mean fluxes within 20%, and for methyl chloride emissions, over 10 replications per field are necessary.

This paper investigates physiological and biochemical aspects of methyl halide production in rice plants over two growing seasons. Multiple separate mechanisms appear to be responsible for production of methyl halides in rice plant tissues. Evidence for multiple mechanisms is found in timing of peak emissions of methyl halides from rice, inconsistent effects of competitive inhibitors on methyl halide emissions, and large differences in methyl halide emission rates when compared to plant tissue halide concentrations. Other results show that chloride, bromide, and iodide ion concentrations in plant tissue appear to be regulated throughout the season, and observed changes in leaf tissue concentration cannot explain observed methyl halide emissions. The Km for methyl iodide formation in leaf tissue cell-free extract is 0.018 mM, suggesting a very efficient mechanism. Of the seven competitive inhibitors used, only thiol had a consistently strong effect on both methyl iodide and methyl bromide. Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union.

Modification of continental land for agricultural use has increased over the last century. Atmospheric impact of this land use change has only been addressed for a few ecosystems and compounds. This paper provides, to date, the most comprehensive examination of gaseous emissions from rice paddies. We report seasonal emission ranges and integrated emission totals for 55 chemical species. This paper is the first to report emissions of isoprene, ethyl chloride, bromoform, alkyl nitrates, bromodichloromethane, hexane, and benzene from rice paddies. Emissions of alkyl nitrates, bromoform, ethyl chloride, and bromodichloromethane by terrestrial ecosystems have never before been observed. For species where emissions were observed we tentatively ascribe possible mechanisms of production; photochemical or biological production in the water column or rice plant mediated. For some compounds, during periods of maximum emissions, ambient rice paddy air concentrations may be concentrated enough to affect regional atmospheric chemistry.

Methyl halide gases are important sources of atmospheric inorganic halogen compounds, which in turn are central reactants in many stratospheric and tropospheric chemical processes. By observing emissions of methyl chloride, methyl bromide, and methyl iodide from flooded California rice fields, we estimate the impact of rice agriculture on the atmospheric budgets of these gases. Factors influencing methyl halide emissions are stage of rice growth, soil organic content, halide concentrations, and field-water management. Extrapolating our data implies that about 1 percent of atmospheric methyl bromide and 5 percent of methyl iodide arise from rice fields worldwide. Unplanted flooded fields emit as much methyl chloride as planted, flooded rice fields.

Halogens released from soil reservoirs to the atmosphere play important roles in atmospheric chemistry, including ozone loss and aerosol formation. Closed system experiments to determine controlling factors in halogen movement between the pedosphere, hydrosphere, terrestrial biosphere, and atmosphere are needed. This paper presents results from a closed system experiment on simulated rice paddies. It was observed that most water-extractable (bioavailable), halogens were swept downward from the surface during the initial watering pulse (∼50, 70, and 75% of chloride, bromide, and iodide in unadulterated soils). Soil halogens were sequestered by rice plants with 28, 4, and 24% of the remaining bioavailable chlorine, bromine, and iodine processed by the plant tissue by the end of the season. Of the bioavailable halogens taken into the rice plant, less than 1% of chlorine or bromine is volatilized as a methyl halide while over 90% of iodide is emitted as gaseous CH3I. Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union.