An in-depth annotation of the newly discovered coronavirus (2019-nCoV) genome has revealed differences between 2019-nCoV and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) or SARS-like coronaviruses. A systematic comparison identified 380 amino acid substitutions between these coronaviruses, which may have caused functional and pathogenic divergence of 2019-nCoV.

In three-dimensional extracellular matrix, mesenchymal cells including hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) gain the ability to express matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) on injury signals. In contrast, in myofibroblastic HSCs in fibrotic liver, many MMP genes are silenced into an epigenetically nonpermissive state. The mechanism by which the three-dimensional extracellular matrix confers the MMP genes into an epigenetically permissive state has not been well characterized. In continuation of previous work, we show here that the up-regulation of MMP genes is mediated through degradation of class IIa histone deacetylases (HDACs) by certain cysteine cathepsins (Cts). In three-dimensional extracellular matrix culture, CtsH, among other cysteine cathepsins, was up-regulated and localized as puncta in the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments in a complex with HDAC4 for its degradation. Conversely, along with HSC trans-differentiation, CtsH and CtsL were progressively down-regulated, whereas HDAC4 was concurrently stabilized. The inhibition of cysteine cathepsins by specific proteinase inhibitors or chloroquine, which raises cellular pH, restored HDAC4. Recombinant CtsH could break down HDAC4 in the transfected cells and in vitro at acidic pH. In human cirrhotic liver, activated HSCs express high levels of class IIa HDACs but little CtsH. We propose that cysteine cathepsin-mediated degradation of class IIa HDACs plays a key role in the modulation of MMP expression/suppression and HSC functions in tissue injury and fibrosis.