The golden calves are the most iconic of ancient Israel’s sins. And yet, scholarship focused on these images is scant and repetitive. Previous research has generally sought to determine how idolatrous these statues were according to modern standards, making the calves more theological constructs than ancient cultic objects.

I seek to expand our knowledge of Israel’s calves and the cultus surrounding them by investigating the often-overlooked Book of Hosea. This eighth century Minor Prophet is arguably the oldest written critique of the calves extant, making it the place to begin considerations of Israel’s calf cultus. However, Hosea’s writings on the calves are obscure, and rigorous philology is necessary to understand its three texts on the calves: Hosea 8:5-6, 10:5-6, and 13:2. This dissertation therefore examines these difficult passages and suggests new interpretations of them based on comparative Semitics and cultural comparisons with ancient Syria and Neo-Assyria. Special consideration is given to the role these objects played in Israelite society, with methodological insights taken from material studies and monumentality.

Overall, it is argued that Israel’s calf statues acted as equivalents to cultic statues in other polities. The Calf of Samaria (Hosea 8:6) was associated with the Yahweh of Samaria known from the Kuntillet ‘Ajrud inscriptions. It interacted with Israel’s priests and kings through rituals and offerings. These rituals became key symbols of divine authorization for Israel’s last kings, who struggled to maintain their legitimacy as the Northern Kingdom collapsed. As the society continued to crumble, the weakening of Israel’s monarchy strained the cultus that it depended upon. The authors of Hosea thus used the downfall of Israel’s kings and kingdom to demonstrate the impotence of the calf statues, making their aniconic rhetoric not merely theological, but socially grounded.

The conclusion of this dissertation suggests that the aniconic reforms of Hezekiah were spurred in part by Israel’s downfall and the northern rhetoric surrounding it. The golden calves were thus forever associated with a sin that brought on divine abandonment, as opposed to the divine presence they were intended to mark.