The growing number of public transportation agencies partnering with Mobility on Demand (MOD) or Mobility as a Service (MaaS) companies raises the question of what role MOD companies can, should, and currently play in the provision of public transport. In this article, we develop a typology reflecting 62 MOD public-private partnerships (MOD PPPs) in the United States and present lessons learned. We conducted 34 interviews with representatives from four MOD companies and 27 public agencies. The interviews spanned October 2017 to April 2018. The resulting MOD PPP typology consists of four service models: 1) First-Mile/Last-Mile (FMLM), 2) Low Density, 3) Off-Peak, and 4) Paratransit. The typology also includes two MOD asset contribution models: 1) Agency-Operated MOD and 2) Agency-Subsidized Private MOD. Lessons learned for limiting competition with fixed-route public transit include: a) if agencies have sufficient resources, they can generally maintain greater data access and control over the service with Agency-Operated MOD than Agency-Subsidized Private MOD; b) public agencies can supplement the Agency-Operated MOD model with Agency-Subsidized Private MOD during peak demand; c) public agencies sometimes encourage FMLM transfers to fixed-route public transit by creating service zones that divide trip generators and attractors and assigning one or two designated transfer stops to each zone; and d) one approach to protecting fixed-route public transit is to restrict Low-Density MOD services to trips that start and end outside a geofenced fixed-route service area.

Bicycle infrastructure design has largely emphasized bicycle lanes and paths, with little attention to the facilities at trip’s end—those which address bicyclists’ needs for security for their bicycle and belongings, shelter from the weather, and making the transition from bicycle rider. These elements comprise what we are calling “bicycle-oriented design” (BOD) and include covered and secure parking, storage for clothing and equipment, and showers and changing rooms. Similar to the concept that in transit-oriented development (TOD), a transit traveler becomes a pedestrian over the course of the entire trip, BOD reflects that a bicyclist becomes something other than a bicyclist at the journey’s end. 

In 2013, The California Department of Transportation-District 11 (Caltrans) launched the California Integrated Border Approach Strategy (CA-IBAS) in response to a need for a better-integrated border transportation system that reduces impacts on border communities. Work was conducted in two phases to identify ways to better address regional mobility needs and the traveler experience in California’s communities along the California-Mexico border. During Phase 1, led by METRANS, the team conducted a preliminary assessment of key institutional and policy issues at CaliforniaMexico land POEs, including an overview of relevant agencies and stakeholders as well as analysis of institutional structures that might be used to improve service delivery, funding, and financing options for multi-agency projects. Building on Phase 1, Phase 2 of the CA-IBAS study was led by UC Berkeley and in collaboration with UCLA, University of Washington and California State University, Long Beach, and the results are presented in this final report. The report specifically evaluates the feasibility of various institutional mechanisms and strategies that could support and advance coordinated strategic planning, project delivery, and funding partnerships to meet mobility and travel needs at the California – Mexico border.