The excessive use of carbaryl has resulted in the risk of its exposure. In this study, we isolated six nanobodies (Nbs) from a camelid phage display library against the biomarker of carbaryl, 1-naphthol (1-NAP). Owing to its characteristics of easy genetic modifications, we produced a nanobody-alkaline phosphatase (Nb-CC4-ALP) fusion protein with good stability. A dual-emission system based ratiometric fluoroimmunoassay (RFIA) for quick and highly sensitive determination of 1-NAP was developed. Silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) was used as an internal reference and for aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs), while AuNCs could be quenched by MnO₂ via oxidation. In the presence of ALP, ascorbic acid phosphate (AAP) can be transformed into ascorbic acid (AA), the later can etch MnO₂ to recover the fluorescence of the AuNCs. Based on optimal conditions, the proposed assay showed 220-fold sensitivity improvement in comparison with conventional monoclonal antibody-based ELISA. The recovery test of urine samples and the validation by standard HPLC-FLD demonstrated the proposed assay was an ideal tool for screening 1-NAP and provided technical support for the monitoring of carbaryl exposure.

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the largest brominated flame retardant which can be released to environment and cause long-term hazard. In this work, we developed a rapid and highly sensitive fluorescence enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (FELISA) for monitoring of TBBPA in soil samples. TBBPA specific nanobody derived from camelid was fused with alkaline phosphatase to obtain the bi-functional fusion protein, which enable the specific binding of TBBPA and the generation of detection signal simultaneously. The assay showed an IC₅₀ of 0.23 ng g^-1, limit detection of 0.05 ng g^-1 and linear range from 0.1 to 0.55 ng g^-1 for TBBPA in soil samples. Due to the high resistance to organic solvents of the fusion protein, a simple pre-treatment by using 40% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as extract solvent can eliminate matrix effect and obtain good recoveries (ranging from 93.4% to 112.4%) for spiked soil samples. Good relationship between the results of the proposed FELISA and that of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was obtained, which indicated it could be a powerful analytical tool for determination of TBBPA to monitor human and environmental exposure.

Histamine (HA) is an important food contaminant generated during food fermentation or spoilage. However, an immunoassay for direct (derivatization free) determination of HA has rarely been reported due to its small size to induce the desired antibodies by its current hapten-protein conjugates. In this work, despite violating the classical hapten design criteria which recommend introducing a linear aliphatic (phenyl free) linker into the immunizing hapten, a novel haptens, HA-245 designed and synthesized with a phenyl-contained linker, exhibited significantly enhanced immunological properties. Thus, a quality-improved monoclonal antibody (Mab) against HA was elicited by its hapten-carrier conjugates. Then, as the linear aliphatic linker contained haptens, Hapten B was used as linker-heterologous coating haptens to eliminate the recognition of linker antibodies. Indirect competitive ELISA (ic-ELISA) was developed with a 50% inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) of 0.21 mg/L and a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.06 mg/L in buffer solution. The average recoveries of HA from spiked food samples for this ic-ELISA ranged from 84.1% and 108.5%, and the analysis results agreed well with those of referenced LC-MS/MS. This investigation not only realized derivatization-free immunoassay for HA, but also provided a valuable guidance for hapten design and development of immunoassay for small molecules.

A heavy-chain antibody (VHH) library against procymidone (PRM) was constructed via immunizing Bactrian camels. Through careful biopanning, seven nanobodies (Nbs) with different sequences were obtained. The variability in their performance was primarily attributed to the amino acid differences in complementarity-determining region 3 (CDR3), as analyzed by molecular docking. The Nb exhibiting the highest sensitivity, named NbFM5, was biotinylated and conjugated to streptavidin-labeled gold nanoparticles to preserve the epitope's activity and prevent a decrease in sensitivity due to traditional random electrostatic adsorption. Subsequently, a simple and sensitive immunochromatographic assay (ICA) was developed for rapid detection of PRM based on biotinylated Nb (btNb). The developed btNb-ICA showed a cut-off value of 200 ng/mL for visual judgment and a half-inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 6.04 ng/mL for quantitative detection. The limit of detection (LOD) was as low as 0.88 ng/mL. The recoveries in actual samples of crops ranged from 82.2 to 117.3%, aligning well with the results obtained from GC-MS/MS (R² = 0.995). In summary, the developed btNb-ICA demonstrated high specificity and good accuracy for the rapid detection of PRM residues in vegetables. The total analysis time from preparing the sample to obtaining the result was less than 25 min.

The simultaneous determination of carbaryl and its metabolite 1-naphthol is essential for risk assessment of pesticide exposure in agricultural and environmental samples. Herein, several bispecific nanobodies (BsNbs) with different lengths of hydrophilic linkers and junction sites were prepared and characterized for the simultaneous recognition of carbaryl and its metabolite 1-naphthol. It was found that the affinity of BsNbs to the analytes could be regulated by controlling linker length and linking terminal. Additionally, molecular simulation revealed that linker lengths affected the conformation of BsNbs, leading to alteration in sensitivity. The BsNb with G₄S linker, named G₄S-C-N-VHH, showing good thermal stability and sensitivity was used to develop a bispecific indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Bic-ELISA). The assay demonstrated a limit of detection of 0.8 ng/mL for carbaryl and 0.4 ng/mL for 1-naphthol in buffer system. Good recoveries from soil and rice samples were obtained, ranging from 80.0% to 112.7% (carbaryl) and 76.5%-110.8% (1-naphthol), respectively. Taken together, this study firstly provided a BsNb with high sensitivity and efficiency against environmental pesticide and its metabolite, and firstly used molecular dynamics simulation to explore the influence of linker on recognition. The results are valuable for the application of immunoassay with high efficiency in the fields of environment and agriculture.

1-naphthol (1-NAP) is the main metabolite of pesticide carbaryl and naphthalene, and is also a genotoxic and carcinogenic intermediate in the synthesis of organic compound, dyes, pigment and pharmaceutical industry. In this work, two novel haptens were designed and synthesized for developing a competitive indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ciELISA) method for 1-NAP in urine samples. The assay showed a limit of detection of 2.21 ng/mL and working range from 4.02 ng/mL to 31.25 ng/mL for 1-NAP in optimized working buffer. The matrix effect of samples was eliminated via 15-fold dilution of optimized working buffer. Good average recoveries (102.4%-123.4%) with a coefficient of variation from 11.7% to 14.7% was obtained for spiked urine samples. Subsequent instrument verification test showed good correlation between the results of ciELISA and high-performance liquid chromatography. The developed ciELISA is a high-throughput tool to monitor 1-NAP in urine, which can provide technical support for the establishment of biological exposure level for the exposure to carbaryl, naphthalene and other related pollutants.

The isolation of nanobodies (Nbs) from phage display libraries is an increasingly effective approach for the generation of new biorecognition elements, which can be used to develop immunoassays. In this study, highly specific Nbs against the Alternaria mycotoxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) were isolated from an immune nanobody phage display library using a stringent biopanning strategy. The obtained Nbs were characterized by classical enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the best one Nb-3F9 was fused with nanoluciferase to prepare an advanced bifunctional fusion named nanobody-nanoluciferase (Nb-Nluc). In order to improve the sensitivity and reduce the assay time, two different kinds of luminescent strategies including chemiluminescent enzyme immunoassay (CLEIA) and bioluminescent enzyme immunoassay (BLEIA) were established, respectively, on the basis of the single Nb and the fusion protein Nb-Nluc for TeA detection. The two-step CLEIA was developed on the basis of the same nanobody as ELISA, only with simple substrate replacement from 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to luminol. In contrast with CLEIA, the novel BLEIA was conducted in one-step new strategy on the basis of Nb-Nluc and bioluminescent substrate coelenterazine-h (CTZ-h). Their half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values were similar to 8.6 ng/mL for CLEIA and 9.3 ng/mL for BLEIA, which was a 6-fold improvement in sensitivity compared with that of ELISA (IC₅₀ of 54.8 ng/mL). Both of the two assays provided satisfactory recoveries ranging from 80.1%-113.5% in real samples, which showed better selectivity for TeA analogues and other common mycotoxins. These results suggested that Nbs and Nb-Nluc could be used as useful reagents for immunodetection and that the developed CLEIA/BLEIA have great potential for TeA analysis.

To develop a more sensitive immunoassay for malachite green (MG) and leucomalachite green (LMG), we identified the immunocomplex binding phage-borne peptides for use in the noncompetitive phage anti-immunocomplex assay (PHAIA). An anti-LMG monoclonal antibody (mAb) was used to select immunocomplex binding peptides from a circular random eight-amino-acid phage-displayed library. After three rounds of panning-elution, five peptides that bound the LMG-mAb immunocomplex were obtained. One of the phage-borne peptide clones that resulted in an assay with the highest sensitivity was chosen for further research. The concentration of LMG producing 50% of the saturated signal and the limit of detection of the assay were 7.02 and 0.55 ng/mL, respectively, with a linear range of 1.35 to 21.56 ng/mL. The PHAIA based on the same antibody was 16 times more sensitive compared to the competitive immunoassay. PHAIA was used to analyze LMG, MG, and two mixtures of spiked fish samples, with validation by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector. Results showed a good correlation (R(2)LMG = 0.9841; R(2)MG = 0.993; R(2)Mixture = 0.9903) between the data of PHAIA and HPLC, thus the assay was an efficient method for monitoring food safety.

A simple and sensitive fluoroimmunoassay (FIA) based on a heavy-chain antibody (VHH) for rapid detection of fenitrothion was developed. A VHH library was constructed from an immunized alpaca, and one clone recognizing fenitrothion (namely, VHHjd8) was achieved after careful biopanning. It was biotinylated by fusing with the Avi tag and biotin ligase to obtain a fusion protein (VHHjd8-BT), showing both binding capacity to fenitrothion and the streptavidin poly-horseradish peroxidase conjugate (SA-polyHRP). Based on a competitive assay format, the absorbance spectrum of oxidized 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine generated by SA-polyHRP overlapped the emission spectrum of carbon dots, which resulted in quenching of signals due to the inner-filter effect. The developed FIA showed an IC₅₀ value of 1.4 ng/mL and a limit of detection of 0.03 ng/mL, which exhibited 15-fold improvement compared with conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The recovery test of FIA was validated by standard GC-MS/MS, and the results showed good consistency, indicating that the assay is an ideal tool for rapid screening of fenitrothion in bulk food samples.

The accurate analysis of chemical isomers plays an important role in the study of their different toxic effects and targeted detection of pollutant isomers in foods. The Alternaria mycotoxins tenuazonic acid (TeA) and iso-tenuazonic acid (ITeA) are two isomer mycotoxins with the lack of single analysis methods due to the similar structures. Antibody-based immunoassays exhibit high sensitivity and superior application in isomer-specific determination. Previously, various kinds of antibodies for TeA have been prepared in our group. Herein, highly specific nanobodies (Nbs) against ITeA mycotoxin were selected from immune nanobody phage display library, and one of Nbs, namely Nb(B3G3) exhibited excellent affinity, thermal stability as well as organic solvent tolerance. By molecular simulation and docking technology, it was found that stronger interaction between Nb(B3G3) and ITeA lead to higher affinity than that for its isomer TeA. Furthermore, a sensitive indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA) was established with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.09 ng/mL for ITeA mycotoxin. The recovery rate of ITeA in spiked samples was analyzed with 84.8%-89.5% for rice, 78.3%-96.3% for flour, and 79.5%-90.7% for bread. A conventional LC-MS/MS method was used to evaluate the accuracy of this proposed icELISA, which showed a satisfactory consistent correlation. Since the convenient strategy for nanobody generation by phage display technology, this study provide new biorecognition elements and sensitive immunoassay for analysis of ITeA in foods.