Introduction

Bullying victimization is detrimental to psychosocial wellbeing in adolescents. It is paramount that factors that mitigate the harmful effects of bullying victimization be identified. Time perspective may be a potential mechanism. Thus, we examined the moderating effect of time perspective on the associations between traditional and cyberbullying victimization (being bullied in person and on electronic media) and self-esteem in adolescents. Time perspective refers to feelings and thoughts about the past, present, and future. We examined time feelings (positive and negative feelings about the time periods), time frequency (frequency of thoughts about the time periods), and time relation (the perceived relationship among the time periods).

Methods

Two cross-sectional survey studies were conducted. Study 1 examined traditional bullying victimization in 721 American adolescents (M_age = 15.84, SD = 1.20; 57% female). Study 2 examined cyberbullying victimization in 190 American adolescents (M_age = 15.83, SD = 1.28; 59% female).

Results

Hierarchical linear regression analyses indicated that time perspective dimensions moderated the associations between high levels of traditional and cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem in adolescents who (a) had strong positive and weak negative feelings about the present and future (time feelings); (b) thought a little about the past (time frequency); or (c) perceived all time periods as interrelated (time relation).

Conclusions

Time perspective dimensions (feelings, frequency, and relation) moderated the associations between traditional and cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem in adolescents. Findings have implications for bullying victimization prevention efforts. Findings also demonstrate the multidimensional and multi-temporal qualities of time perspective.

Bullying victimization is a prevalent and harmful experience for adolescents and is positively associated with risky behaviors, including tobacco use. We investigated a potential moderator for the associations between bullying victimization and tobacco use, namely time perspective, which refers to thoughts about time. Bullied adolescents may focus on past events more than present or future events, which could lead to less adaptive coping mechanisms in response to stress, such as tobacco use. Multiple time perspective dimensions and time periods (past, present, and future) were examined. Time orientation refers to the relative emphasis placed on a time period. Time relation refers to the perceived relationship among the time periods. Bullying victimization and tobacco use were self-reported. Participants included 758 adolescents (M_age = 15.81, SD_age = 1.22; 54% female). Multiple linear regression analysis indicated that bullying victimization was positively associated with tobacco use. Moderated regression analyses indicated that perceiving all time periods as important (time orientation) and interrelated (time relation) buffered the positive association between bullying victimization and tobacco use in adolescents. Analyses controlled for demographics, sensation seeking, and stress. Results suggest that future research should examine the viability of time perspective-based interventions for bullying victimization and tobacco use in adolescents.

We examined the associations between time perspective and mental health outcomes (N = 337; M_age = 22.74, SD_age = 5.59; 76% female). Time perspective included multiple dimensions (feelings, frequency, orientation, and relation) and time periods (past, present, and future). Mental health outcomes included depressive symptoms, anxiety, and rumination. To demonstrate the reliability of the time perspective scales, test-retest analyses were completed. Multivariate analyses showed that (a) positive feelings about time were associated with lower anxiety; (b) negative feelings about time were associated with greater anxiety; and (c) more frequent thoughts about the past were associated with greater depressive symptoms and anxiety. Associations remained when controlling for anxiety and depressive symptoms, respectively. Moreover, (a) positive feelings about time were associated with lower rumination; (b) negative feelings about time were associated with greater rumination; and (c) more frequent thoughts about the past were associated with greater rumination. Time perspective scales yielded scores that were moderate to high in test-retest reliability. Findings demonstrate the value of examining separate time perspective dimensions and time periods. Results highlight the role of time perspective in mental health interventions for adults.

Introduction

Increasing racial/ethnic diversity in the United States calls for methodological approaches that capture participants who identify with multiple racial/ethnic groups. Existing approaches are oriented toward large samples (N > 500); yet, we do not know how effective these approaches are with more common smaller convenience samples. We explored how several approaches were associated with the sample distribution of racial/ethnic groups and ethnic identity using a small convenience sample.

Methods

In 2017, 320 U.S. adolescents (M_age  = 16.04 years, SD_age  = 1.33; 59% female) responded to an open-ended question regarding their racial/ethnic group(s) in a cross-sectional survey. Seventy-five (23%) adolescents identified with multiple racial/ethnic groups. Remaining adolescents identified solely with the Asian/Hawaiian Native/Pacific Islander (19%), Black/African American (3%), European American (21%), Latinx (34%), or Native American/Alaska Native (<1%) group.

Results

Three approaches for adolescents with multiple racial/ethnic groups were employed. Findings indicated that the sample distributions differed across the approaches. The greatest differences were shown for Black/African American, Native American/Alaska Native, and Other Race/Ethnicity groups. Descriptively, ethnic identity also differed across the approaches. For example, multiracial/ethnic adolescents reported greater ethnic identity-exploration than their European American counterparts in one approach than in others.

Conclusions

Researchers should carefully consider approaches to research with adolescents who identify with multiple racial/ethnic groups given implications for the literature. This study demonstrates the critical need to further develop approaches for capturing the complexity of race/ethnicity.

We examined time perspective and self-esteem in adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults. Time perspective was measured with scales that assess relative orientations and relationships among the past, present, and future. Age effects were examined with standard analytic strategies to determine categorical differences between age groups and with new statistical techniques designed to show continuous age patterns. Findings indicated that (1) thinking about the future was greatest for adolescents and young adults and lowest for middle-aged and older adults, and thinking about the present increased across ages; (2) fewer adolescents and middle-aged participants perceived that the time periods were interrelated compared to younger and older adults; and (3) across ages, a greater emphasis towards the past compared to other time periods was associated with lower self-esteem, whereas emphasizing the present and the future jointly was associated with higher self-esteem.

We used a person-centered approach to examine associations among time attitude profiles –positive and negative feelings about the past, present, and future – and risky behaviors. Participants were adolescents from the U.S. and Germany. The U.S. sample included 742 participants (MAge = 15.71; 53.6% female). The German sample included 610 participants (MAge = 14.75; 51.4% female). Latent profile analyses supported three more adaptive (Positive, Balanced, and Optimists) and two less adaptive (Ambivalent, Extremely Past Negative) time attitude profiles in both samples. In the U.S., adolescents in the Positive profile reported fewer risky behaviors than their counterparts. In Germany, adolescents in the Extremely Past Negatives profile reported more risky behaviors than their counterparts. Findings support the investigation of time attitudes as a meaningful correlate of risky behaviors in adolescents and across cultures.