The Li-ion battery is one of the most important rechargeable energy storage devices due to its high energy density, long cycle life, and reliable safety. Although the performances of Li-ion batteries have been improved dramatically, the limit in terms of the energy density still needs to be resolved to meet the growing demands for large-scale mobile devices. Choosing the cathode material is the most pivotal issue in achieving higher energy, since the energy density is directly correlated to the specific capacity of the cathode. Intercalation-based cathode materials have been widely utilized in commercial products; however they yield a limited capacity due to restricted crystallographic sites for Li-ions. In this thesis, the NiF₂ and NiO doped NiF₂/C conversion materials , which display substantially greater capacities, are intensively studied using various synchrotron X-ray techniques and magnetic measurements. The enhanced electronic conductivity of NiO doped NiF₂/C is associated with a significant improvement in the reversible conversion reaction. While bimodal Ni nanoparticles are maintained for NiO doped NiF₂/C upon the discharge, for pure NiF₂ only smaller nanoparticles remain following the 2nd discharge. Based on the electronic conductivity, it is demonstrated that the size of Ni nanoparticles is associated with the conversion kinetics and consequently the reversibility. Although Li-ion batteries offer the highest energy density among all the secondary batteries, the amount of the reserves and the cost associated with the Li sources are still a concern. In the second part of the thesis, P2 type Na₂/₃[Ni₁/₃Mn₂/₃]O₂ is investigated to understand the structural stability in the Na-ion batteries. Significantly improved battery performances are obtained by excluding the phase transformation region. In addition, the structural evolution of the P2- Na₀.₈[Li₀.₁₂Ni₀.₂₂Mn₀.₆₆]O₂ is tracked by in situ technique and revealed no phase transformation during the cycling. It is identified that the presence of Li-ions in the transition metal layer allows increased number of Na- ions after charging maintaining the P2 structure. The design principles for the P2 type Na cathodes are proposed on the basis of our understanding; eventually an advanced cathode material is achieved for high energy Na-ion batteries

The conversion reactions of pure NiF2 and the NiO-doped NiF2-C composite (NiO-NiF2-C) were investigated using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and pair distribution function (PDF) analysis. The enhanced electronic conductivity of NiO-NiF2-C is associated with a significant improvement in the reversibility of the conversion reaction compared to pure NiF2. Different evolutions of the size distributions of the Ni nanoparticles formed during discharge were observed. While a bimodal nanoparticle size distribution was maintained for NiO-NiF2-C following the 1st and 2nd discharge, for pure NiF2 only smaller nanoparticles (∼14 Å) remained following the 2nd discharge. We postulate that the solid electrolyte interphase formed upon the 1st discharge at large overpotential retards the growth of metallic Ni leading to formation of smaller Ni particles during the 2nd discharge. In contrast, the NiO doping and the carbon layer covering the NiO-NiF2-C possibly facilitate the conversion process on the surface preserving the reaction kinetics upon the 2nd discharge. Based on the electronic conductivity and surface properties, the resulting size of the Ni nanoparticles is associated with the conversion kinetics and consequently the cyclability.

Li-substituted layered P2-Na0.80[Li0.12Ni 0.22Mn0.66]O2 is investigated as an advanced cathode material for Na-ion batteries. Both neutron diffraction and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are used to elucidate the local structure, and they reveal that most of the Li ions are located in transition metal (TM) sites, preferably surrounded by Mn ions. To characterize structural changes occurring upon electrochemical cycling, in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction is conducted. It is clearly demonstrated that no significant phase transformation is observed up to 4.4 V charge for this material, unlike Li-free P2-type Na cathodes. The presence of monovalent Li ions in the TM layers allows more Na ions to reside in the prismatic sites, stabilizing the overall charge balance of the compound. Consequently, more Na ions remain in the compound upon charge, the P2 structure is retained in the high voltage region, and the phase transformation is delayed. Ex situ NMR is conducted on samples at different states of charge/discharge to track Li-ion site occupation changes. Surprisingly, Li is found to be mobile, some Li ions migrate from the TM layer to the Na layer at high voltage, and yet this process is highly reversible. Novel design principles for Na cathode materials are proposed on the basis of an atomistic level understanding of the underlying electrochemical processes. These principles enable us to devise an optimized, high capacity, and structurally stable compound as a potential cathode material for high-energy Na-ion batteries. © 2014 American Chemical Society.