Background

Recent evidence indicates that histamine, acting on histamine 1 receptor (H1R), resets the circadian clock in the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) by increasing intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]i) through the activation of CaV1.3 L-type Ca(2+) channels and Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release from ryanodine receptor-mediated internal stores.

Results

In the current study, we explored the underlying mechanisms with various techniques including Ca(2+)- and Cl(-)-imaging and extracellular single-unit recording. Our hypothesis was that histamine causes Cl(-) efflux through cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) to elicit membrane depolarization needed for the activation of CaV1.3 Ca(2+) channels in SCN neurons. We found that histamine elicited Cl(-) efflux and increased [Ca(2+)]i in dissociated mouse SCN cells. Both of these events were suppressed by bumetanide [Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporter isotype 1 (NKCC1) blocker], CFTRinh-172 (CFTR inhibitor), gallein (Gβγ protein inhibitor) and H89 [protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor]. By itself, H1R activation with 2-pyridylethylamine increased the level of cAMP in the SCN and this regulation was prevented by gallein. Finally, histamine-evoked phase shifts of the circadian neural activity rhythm in the mouse SCN slice were blocked by bumetanide, CFTRinh-172, gallein or H89 and were not observed in NKCC1 or CFTR KO mice.

Conclusions

Taken together, these results indicate that histamine recruits the H1R-Gβγ-cAMP/PKA pathway in the SCN neurons to activate CaV1.3 channels through CFTR-mediated Cl(-) efflux and ultimately to phase-shift the circadian clock. This pathway and NKCC1 may well be potential targets for agents designed to treat problems resulting from the disturbance of the circadian system.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with increased plasma levels of arginine-vasopressin (AVP), which may aggravate hyperglycemia and nephropathy. However, the mechanisms by which DM may cause the increased AVP levels are not known. Electrophysiological recordings in supraoptic nucleus (SON) slices from streptozotocin (STZ)-induced DM rats and vehicle-treated control rats revealed that γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) functions generally as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the AVP neurons of STZ rats, whereas it usually evokes inhibitory responses in the cells of control animals. Furthermore, Western blotting analyses of Cl- transporters in the SON tissues indicated that Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter isotype 1 (a Cl- importer) was upregulated and K+-Cl- cotransporter isotype 2 (KCC2; a Cl- extruder) was downregulated in STZ rats. Treatment with CLP290 (a KCC2 activator) significantly lowered blood AVP and glucose levels in STZ rats. Last, investigation that used rats expressing an AVP-enhanced green fluorescent protein fusion gene showed that AVP synthesis in AVP neurons was much more intense in STZ rats than in control rats. We conclude that altered Cl- homeostasis that makes GABA excitatory and enhanced AVP synthesis are important changes in AVP neurons that would increase AVP secretion in DM. Our data suggest that Cl- transporters in AVP neurons are potential targets of antidiabetes treatments.

Background

Increased secretion of oxytocin and arginine vasopressin (AVP) from hypothalamic magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MNCs) is a key physiological response to lactation. In the current study, we sought to test the hypothesis that the GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition of MNCs is altered in lactating rats.

Results

Gramicidin-perforated recordings in the rat supraoptic nucleus (SON) slices revealed that the reversal potential of GABAA receptor-mediated response (EGABA) of MNCs was significantly depolarized in the lactating rats as compared to virgin animals. The depolarizing EGABA shift was much larger in rats in third, than first, lactation such that GABA exerted an excitatory, instead of inhibitory, effect in most of the MNCs of these multiparous rats. Immunohistochemical analyses confirmed that GABAergic excitation was found in both AVP and oxytocin neurons within the MNC population. Pharmacological experiments indicated that the up-regulation of the Cl(-) importer Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporter isotype 1 and the down-regulation of the Cl(-) extruder K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter isotype 2 were responsible for the depolarizing shift of EGABA and the resultant emergence of GABAergic excitation in the MNCs of the multiparous rats.

Conclusion

We conclude that, in primiparous rats, the GABAergic inhibition of MNCs is weakened during the period of lactation while, in multiparous females, GABA becomes excitatory in a majority of the cells. This reproductive experience-dependent alteration of GABAergic transmission may help to increase the secretion of oxytocin and AVP during the period of lactation.

Histamine, a neurotransmitter/neuromodulator implicated in the control of arousal state, exerts a potent phase-shifting effect on the circadian clock in the rodent suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). In this study, the mechanisms by which histamine resets the circadian clock in the mouse SCN were investigated. As a first step, Ca(2+) -imaging techniques were used to demonstrate that histamine increases intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+) ]i ) in acutely dissociated SCN neurons and that this increase is blocked by the H1 histamine receptor (H1R) antagonist pyrilamine, the removal of extracellular Ca(2+) and the L-type Ca(2+) channel blocker nimodipine. The histamine-induced Ca(2+) transient is reduced, but not blocked, by application of the ryanodine receptor (RyR) blocker dantrolene. Immunohistochemical techniques indicated that CaV 1.3 L-type Ca(2+) channels are expressed mainly in the somata of SCN cells along with the H1R, whereas CaV 1.2 channels are located primarily in the processes. Finally, extracellular single-unit recordings demonstrated that the histamine-elicited phase delay of the circadian neural activity rhythm recorded from SCN slices is blocked by pyrilamine, nimodipine and the knockout of CaV 1.3 channel. Again, application of dantrolene reduced but did not block the histamine-induced phase delays. Collectively, these results indicate that, to reset the circadian clock, histamine increases [Ca(2+) ]i in SCN neurons by activating CaV 1.3 channels through H1R, and secondarily by causing Ca(2+) -induced Ca(2+) release from RyR-mediated internal stores.

Aims

Abundant evidence indicates that oestrogen (E2) plays a protective role against hypertension. Yet, the mechanism underlying the antihypertensive effect of E2 is poorly understood. In this study, we sought to determine the mechanism through which E2 inhibits salt-dependent hypertension.

Methods and results

To this end, we performed a series of in vivo and in vitro experiments employing a rat model of hypertension that is produced by deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt treatment after uninephrectomy. We found that E2 prevented DOCA-salt treatment from inducing hypertension, raising plasma arginine-vasopressin (AVP) level, enhancing the depressor effect of the V1a receptor antagonist (Phenylac1,D-Tyr(Et)2,Lys6,Arg8,des-Gly9)-vasopressin, and converting GABAergic inhibition to excitation in hypothalamic magnocellular AVP neurons. Moreover, we obtained results indicating that the E2 modulation of the activity and/or expression of NKCC1 (Cl- importer) and KCC2 (Cl- extruder) underpins the effect of E2 on the transition of GABAergic transmission in AVP neurons. Lastly, we discovered that, in DOCA-salt-treated hypertensive ovariectomized rats, CLP290 (prodrug of the KCC2 activator CLP257, intraperitoneal injections) lowered blood pressure, and plasma AVP level and hyperpolarized GABA equilibrium potential to prevent GABAergic excitation from emerging in the AVP neurons of these animals.

Conclusion

Based on these results, we conclude that E2 inhibits salt-dependent hypertension by suppressing GABAergic excitation to decrease the hormonal output of AVP neurons.