The objective of this study was to characterize temporal and spatial variability in near shore inorganic carbon chemistry in Southern California. To date, relatively little research has been conducted concerning seawater carbon chemistry in the near-shore environment (<2 miles from shore), and this study attempts to serve as a starting point to better understand the contemporary conditions and variability in this environment. Seawater samples were collected monthly for a one-year duration at 15 near-shore locations, encompassing sandy beaches, rocky beaches, and harbors or bays in the San Diego area. This approach was complemented by sampling from a boat along an offshore running transect in La Jolla Cove at 4 locations from the surface to 40m depth. Measurements of Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC), Total Alkalinity (TA), Temperature, and Salinity were conducted. These measured parameters were used to calculate in situ pHSWS, aragonite saturation state ([Omega]-aragonite), pCO₂, and air-sea CO₂ flux at all locations where applicable. Sample locations were categorized, based on their localized environment, into three categories: beach/sand, beach/rock, and harbor/bay (Figure 1). In general, we observed large spatial and temporal variability in DIC, TA, pHSWS, [Omega]-aragonite, pCO₂, and CO₂ flux. The highest variability, as well as the largest values in DIC and TA, occurred in stations categorized as bay/harbor. Stations categorized as beach/ sand and beach/rock were less variable, although, compared to open ocean environments they still experienced large variability with averages of DIC ranging from ±40 µmol kg⁻¹ to ±100 µmol kg⁻¹ over the 12-month study period. Notably, we observed an overall region-wide decrease in TA that contributed to lower seawater pHSWS and [Omega]- aragonite during spring and summer. Calculated pCO₂ and CO₂ flux showed that the region acted as a source of CO₂ to the atmosphere, result that is consistent with previous studies, which have shown that inner continental shelves in general serve as sources of CO₂ to the atmosphere. Low surface seawater pH and [Omega]-aragonite were occasionally observed at some of the stations (sometimes as low as 7.51 and 1.0, respectively), showing a worrying level of acidity not expected in the open ocean until the end of the next century. Similarly, the coastal offshore transect revealed shoaling of low seawater pH and [Omega]- aragonite in the spring and summer as a result of intensified upwelling during this time period. These observations show how coastal processes are likely to intensify the effects of ocean acidification in the coastal ocean with potential consequences to marine organisms sensitive to changes in seawater pH and [Omega]- aragonite. In conclusion, this study provides key data showing that the near-shore environment is highly variable and on occasion experience seawater CO₂ conditions not expected in the open ocean until well into the future. It acts as starting point for further studies aiming to understand the complexity of the near-shore environments that is of major economic, ecologic, scientific, and social importance

Abstract Background: Social skills develop along with metacognitive abilities from early childhood through young adulthood. Impairment in metacognitive and other social cognitive abilities may contribute to poorer social function in clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR) adolescents. However, it is unclear whether social cognitive impairment represents developmental delay in skill acquisition or, rather, a consequence of emerging symptoms. Furthermore, it is unknown how early pharmacotherapy could influence this developmental trajectory. This study examined the hypotheses that (1) age-related trajectories of social cognition differ between CHR and normally developing youth and (2) age-related trajectories are partially explained by history of symptoms and psychotropic medication. Methods: Emotion perception, social perception, and theory of mind abilities were assessed in 675 CHR and 264 age-matched healthy comparison (HC) participants aged 12–35 (average = 19.0 ± 4.5 years). Linear and nonlinear curves were fit to relationships between social cognitive variables and age. Differences in age effects between CHR and HC were modeled as interaction terms. Duration of a prodromal syndrome prior to baseline and medication history were tested for interactions with age effects. Results: Emotion perception and social perception age trajectories did not differ by group. Theory of mind age trajectory, particularly for sarcasm items, had a lower slope for CHR than HC. CHR diverged from HC from mid-adolescence onward (starting to differ between approximately ages 15 and 17.5), with a minimum observation window of 4 years required to detect correlations with age. Age trajectory for theory of mind was unrelated to the presence or duration of a prior prodromal syndrome but did interact with medication history, wherein participants with an antipsychotic or antidepressant medication history did not differ from HCs. Only antipsychotic- and antidepressant-naive CHR participants showed a smaller slope for theory of mind, with differences from HC increasing with advanced age. Conclusion: In the current study, all social cognitive abilities increased during adolescence, but development of theory of mind appeared blunted for CHR participants starting in mid-adolescence. This difference, however, was only true for participants without an antipsychotic or antidepressant medication history, which could suggest benefits of early treatment or subgroups within CHR for whom social cognition is affected differently. These cross-sectional results require longitudinal replication and further inquiry into the relationships between treatment history and social cognitive development. Current results suggest that factors related to risk for psychosis may moderate adolescent social development, and that interventions targeting social cognition may be particularly helpful at this stage.