In 1961, astronomer Frank Drake developed an equation to permit the estimation of the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in our galaxy via the quantification of what he felt to be relevant factors. Drake’s equation contains two terms, fi and fc, that refer, respectively, to the fraction of planets that harbor intelligent life and the fraction of those with intelligent life that develops a technology that would allow communication with other worlds. These are two of the most difficult terms in the equation to estimate and, not surprisingly, a relatively wide range of values has been offered for each. Estimates of the values of the terms depend on a number of conjectures and assumptions. These include aspects of embodiment, such as sensory modalities and faculties to manipulate the environment, and aspects of culture that seem to be crucial for the development of advanced technology. However, the only data on technological development that we have available is from Earth. Several terrestrial species use technologies, although all of these are very simple with the exception of those created by humans. Similarly, a variety of species are now also claimed to have culture, depending on how it is defined. The purpose of this paper is to examine how embodiment, culture, and their interaction, based on their Earthly manifestations, might affect the values of fi and fc.

Altruism is generally defined as the selfless concern for the wellbeing of others or, in the case of nonhuman animals, as behavior that appears to be detrimental to the survival of a given individual but which may contribute to the survival of the others. Calls by social prey species that warn others of the approach of predators, for example, are often regarded as altruistic in that they may help the majority of animals survive while simultaneously drawing the attention of the predator to the individual giving the warning. Animal play and human ritual are areas that are not commonly considered to involve altruism but closer inspection may be warranted. I will argue below that play is the context wherein animals first exhibit, and learn, altruism and that it is displayed by some, although perhaps not all, participants in a ritual common to Latin America.